Government and politics of the USA Revision Notes

Constitutional Framework

• The Constitution is the supreme law, establishing the separation of powers, federalism, and a system of checks and balances. It is a living document, amended through a rigorous process that requires both federal and state approval.
• Federalism divides power between national and state governments. The Tenth Amendment reserves powers not delegated to the federal government for the states, creating a dynamic relationship that has shifted over time.

Congress

• Structure: Bicameral, with the House of Representatives (population‑based) and the Senate (equal state representation). The House has 435 members; the Senate has 100.
• Powers: Legislation, oversight, and the power of the purse. The House initiates revenue bills; the Senate confirms appointments and ratifies treaties.
• Party & Committee Systems: Party discipline is strong, especially in the House. Committees (standing, select, joint) are where most detailed work happens, and they shape policy through hearings and reports.

Presidency

• Sources of Power: Formal powers (executive orders, veto, commander‑in‑chief) and informal powers (executive privilege, agenda‑setting, public persuasion). Examples: Roosevelt’s New Deal (formal) vs. Reagan’s media use (informal).
• Constraints: Checks from Congress (budget, oversight), the Supreme Court (judicial review), public opinion, and the media. Presidential power waxes and wanes depending on party control, crises, and individual leadership style.

Judiciary

• Selection: Supreme Court justices are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, a process that has become increasingly politicised.
• Role: Guardian of the Constitution, interpreter of law, and protector of rights. Judicial review allows the Court to invalidate unconstitutional legislation.
• Landmark Cases: *Brown v. Board of Education* (ended segregation) and *Roe v. Wade* (protected abortion rights). These cases illustrate how the Court can reshape public policy.

Elections & Direct Democracy

• Electoral System: Presidential elections use the Electoral College; congressional elections are first‑past‑the‑post. Primary systems (open, closed, caucuses) determine party nominees.
• Campaign Finance: Contributions from individuals, PACs, and Super PACs influence candidate visibility. Regulations aim to limit undue influence but are often challenged.
• Direct Democracy: State referendums, initiatives, and recall elections allow voters to bypass legislatures, though their success varies by state.

Political Parties

• Democratic & Republican Parties: Historically distinct ideologies have converged and diverged over time, leading to increased polarization.
• Factionalism: Within each party, ideological wings (e.g., progressive vs. moderate Democrats) compete for influence.
• Third Parties: Generally limited impact but can shape discourse (e.g., the Green Party’s environmental focus).

Pressure Groups & Civil Rights

• Pluralism: A wide array of interest groups (business, environmental, civil‑rights) use lobbying, litigation, and public campaigns to influence policy.
• Civil‑Rights Movements: The Civil Rights Act and subsequent amendments expanded protections; Supreme Court rulings continue to interpret these rights.
• Impact on Politics: Pressure groups can shift party platforms, influence election outcomes, and shape public opinion.

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Application & Evaluation

• Compare the formal powers of the President with the informal powers exercised by recent leaders. Evaluate how each has affected policy outcomes.
• Analyse the effectiveness of congressional committees in holding the executive accountable. Consider recent investigations and their political consequences.
• Evaluate the role of the Supreme Court in protecting civil liberties. Discuss how judicial appointments influence the Court’s ideological balance.
• Assess the impact of campaign finance reforms on electoral competitiveness. Use recent elections as case studies.
• Critique the Electoral College’s relevance in a modern, diverse electorate. Propose reforms and evaluate their feasibility.