Depth study C: Russia, 1905-41 Revision Notes

The Tsarist regime faced significant governance challenges before 1914, including autocratic rule resistant to reform, widespread poverty, and social inequality. The regime's failure to modernise politically or economically alienated many social groups, including workers, peasants, and the emerging middle class.

The 1905 Revolution exposed deep unrest triggered by military defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and domestic grievances. Although the Tsar survived by issuing the October Manifesto, which promised a Duma (parliament) and limited reforms, these concessions were half-hearted and failed to satisfy demands for real change.

World War I intensified existing problems. Military defeats, high casualties, and logistical failures undermined confidence in the Tsar and his government. Economic hardship worsened due to war demands, causing food shortages and inflation. The Tsarina's reliance on Rasputin further damaged the regime's credibility. By early 1917, widespread strikes and protests culminated in the March Revolution, forcing Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate and ending centuries of Romanov rule.

• Autocratic governance failed to address social and economic issues.
• 1905 Revolution revealed widespread discontent but reforms were limited.
• World War I caused military defeats and economic crisis.
• March 1917 Revolution led to Tsar's abdication and regime collapse.

The Provisional Government, formed after the Tsar's abdication, struggled to maintain authority. It continued Russia's involvement in World War I, which was unpopular and deepened economic problems. It also failed to address land reforms demanded by peasants and workers' calls for better conditions.

The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, capitalised on the Provisional Government's weaknesses by promising 'Peace, Land, and Bread.' Their slogans appealed to war-weary soldiers, land-hungry peasants, and urban workers. The Bolsheviks gained support through soviets (workers' councils) and organised the October (November) 1917 Revolution, seizing power in Petrograd with relatively little resistance.

Following the seizure of power, the Bolsheviks faced a civil war between the Red Army and anti-Bolshevik White forces. The Bolsheviks' superior organisation, control of central Russia, and use of propaganda helped them win by 1921. To stabilise the economy, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP), which relaxed strict communist controls and allowed some private enterprise, helping to revive agriculture and trade.

• Provisional Government failed to end war or implement reforms.
• Bolsheviks gained support with promises addressing key social demands.
• October 1917 Revolution led to Bolshevik seizure of power.
• Civil War victory secured Bolshevik control.
• NEP introduced to stabilise economy after war disruptions.

After Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin outmaneuvered rivals through political alliances and control of the Communist Party apparatus. His position as General Secretary allowed him to appoint supporters and isolate opponents, leading to his emergence as leader by the late 1920s.

Stalin initiated purges in the 1930s to eliminate perceived enemies within the party, military, and society. These purges consolidated his power by instilling fear and removing opposition, but also caused widespread suffering and loss of experienced officials.

His governance combined authoritarian control with propaganda promoting his cult of personality. The secret police (NKVD) enforced strict obedience, while censorship suppressed dissent. Stalin's control extended over all aspects of Soviet life by 1941, creating a totalitarian state.

• Stalin used party position to outmaneuver rivals after Lenin's death.
• Purges removed opposition and consolidated power through terror.
• Governance relied on propaganda, secret police, and censorship.
• By 1941, Stalin exercised near-total control over the USSR.

Stalin introduced the Five-Year Plans starting in 1928 to rapidly industrialise the Soviet Union. These plans set ambitious production targets for heavy industry, aiming to transform the USSR into a major industrial power. While industrial output increased significantly, targets were often unrealistic, causing poor quality and worker hardship.

Collectivisation aimed to consolidate individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled collective farms to increase agricultural efficiency and supply food for urban workers. This policy faced fierce resistance, leading to widespread famine, especially in Ukraine, and millions of deaths.

Despite human costs, these policies strengthened the Soviet economy's industrial base and military capacity, which was crucial for later wartime resilience. However, the social impact included repression, displacement, and suffering for many Soviet citizens.

• Five-Year Plans focused on rapid industrialisation with mixed success.
• Collectivisation caused famine and peasant resistance.
• Economic policies increased industrial and military strength.
• Policies had severe social consequences including famine and repression.