OCR GCSE History A revision notes
China 1950-1981 Revision Notes
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China 1950-1981
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Communism in China After Mao (1976-1981) Revision Notes
The Immediate Aftermath of Mao's Death (1976)
Mao Zedong died in September 1976, creating a power vacuum and a period of instability. Hua Guofeng, Mao's chosen successor, initially adopted the 'Two Whatevers' policy, stressing loyalty to Mao's every decision and instruction. However, Hua's authority was not widely accepted. Within weeks of Mao's death, the 'Gang of Four' – a radical faction including Mao's widow, Jiang Qing – were arrested. They were scapegoated for the failures and excesses of the Cultural Revolution, effectively ending radical Maoist influence at the highest levels of power and signalling a shift in political direction. This event was crucial in paving the way for more moderate leadership and reforms.
Deng Xiaoping's Rise to Power
Deng Xiaoping, twice purged during Mao's era, gradually consolidated power after Mao's death. He returned to a prominent leadership role in 1977 and by 1978, he had become China's paramount leader, though without holding the highest official titles initially. Deng championed a pragmatic approach, contrasting sharply with Mao's ideological radicalism. His famous quote, 'It doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, as long as it catches mice,' encapsulated his focus on practical results over strict adherence to doctrine. This philosophy became the bedrock of his reform agenda, known as 'Socialism with Chinese Characteristics'.
The Four Modernizations Policy
Deng Xiaoping’s most significant policy initiative was the 'Four Modernizations,' formally launched in 1978. These aimed to rapidly develop and transform four key sectors: agriculture, industry, national defense, and science and technology. This represented a fundamental shift from Mao's emphasis on class struggle and continuous revolution towards economic development. In agriculture, reforms like the household responsibility system allowed families to farm land and keep surplus produce, significantly boosting output. In industry, emphasis shifted to modernizing factories and adopting foreign technology. These policies began to lay the foundation for China's future economic boom, marking a departure from strict Soviet-style central planning.
Early Economic Reforms and Opening Up
Beyond the 'Four Modernizations,' the period 1976-1981 saw the first steps towards opening China's economy to the outside world. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) were established in coastal areas, such as Shenzhen, in the early 1980s, to attract foreign investment and technology. These zones offered preferential tax policies and a more market-oriented environment. While the full impact of these reforms would be seen later, their inception in this period was pivotal. They allowed China to integrate minimally into the global economy, moving away from its previous isolationist policies and setting the stage for decades of economic growth.
Establishing Communism in China 1950-1965 Revision Notes
Early Consolidation and Land Reform (1950-1953)
After securing victory in the Civil War in 1949, the Communist Party of China (CPC) under Mao Zedong quickly moved to establish control across China. A key initial policy was extensive land reform. Landlords, who often held significant power and wealth, had their land confiscated and redistributed to landless peasants. This reform was often accompanied by 'struggle sessions' where landlords were publicly denounced, sometimes resulting in violence or execution. The primary goals were to dismantle the old feudal system, gain widespread support from the rural population (a core base for the Communists), and eliminate potential sources of opposition. This redistribution not only altered land ownership but also significantly shifted political and social power within villages, cementing the Party's authority and control over the vast majority of China's population.
Economic Transformation: The First Five-Year Plan and Collectivisation (1953-1957)
The First Five-Year Plan, implemented from 1953 to 1957, was China's first major attempt at systematic economic development following the Soviet model. The plan prioritised heavy industry, with significant investment in sectors like steel, coal, energy, and machinery, often with technical and financial assistance from the Soviet Union. While industrial output saw substantial growth, the agricultural sector also underwent significant change. Initial voluntary collectivisation progressed to mandatory agricultural producers' cooperatives (APCs) by the mid-1950s. Peasants pooled land, tools, and labour, sharing profits based on contributions. This aimed to increase agricultural output, improve efficiency through economies of scale, and generate surpluses to fund industrialisation, while also bringing agriculture under state control. The plan was largely viewed as successful in laying the groundwork for industrialisation but generated ongoing challenges in agriculture.
The Great Leap Forward (1958-1962)
Mao Zedong, dissatisfied with the pace of development and seeking a distinct Chinese path to communism, launched the Great Leap Forward in 1958. This ambitious campaign aimed for rapid simultaneous development in both agriculture and industry, bypassing gradual stages. It involved creating vast People's Communes, integrating administration, agriculture, and local industry. In rural areas, communes managed everything, including collectivised farming and industrial projects like 'backyard furnaces' for steel production. The goal was to overtake Britain and eventually the USA in industrial output and achieve communist ideals quickly. However, the plan was catastrophic. Overoptimistic targets, exaggerated crop reports, diversion of labour to impractical industrial projects, poor planning, and natural disasters led to widespread famine. Millions died from starvation, making it one of the deadliest human-caused disasters in history. The profound failure severely damaged Mao's prestige and led to a temporary shift in economic policy.
Sino-Soviet Split and Internal Re-evaluation (1960-1965)
The relationship between China and the Soviet Union, initially strong, began to deteriorate significantly in the late 1950s and early 1960s, leading to the Sino-Soviet Split. Ideological differences, particularly over 'peaceful coexistence' with the West (advocated by Khrushchev but rejected by Mao), and China's insistence on its independent path to communism, fueled the rift. Khrushchev's criticism of Stalin and his denunciation of the Great Leap Forward were also major points of contention. The withdrawal of Soviet advisors and aid in 1960 severely impacted China's industrial projects. Internally, following the failure of the Great Leap Forward, more pragmatic leaders like Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping gained influence, implementing policies aimed at economic recovery, including the partial de-collectivisation of agriculture. However, Mao viewed these reforms as a betrayal of communist principles, setting the stage for future political struggles and the Cultural Revolution.
China during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) Revision Notes
Origins and Aims of the Cultural Revolution
Mao Zedong launched the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1966. His primary aims were to reassert his authority within the Communist Party of China (CPC) after the failures of the Great Leap Forward, purge perceived political rivals, eliminate 'bourgeois' and 'revisionist' elements from Chinese society, and rekindle revolutionary zeal among the younger generation. He feared that China was straying from true communist principles, hence the need for a sustained, nationwide 're-education' campaign. He mobilised students, forming the Red Guards, to challenge traditional customs, culture, habits, and ideas.
The Role of the Red Guards and Social Impact
The Red Guards were instrumental in carrying out the Cultural Revolution. Comprising primarily students, they were encouraged to criticise and attack anyone deemed an enemy of the revolution. This led to public denouncements, often violent, against party officials, intellectuals, teachers, and anyone with perceived links to the 'old society' or 'capitalist roaders'. Cultural relics, religious sites, and historical buildings were destroyed. Millions were persecuted, sent to rural areas for 're-education' through manual labor, or imprisoned. Society descended into chaos, with factional fighting among different Red Guard groups even leading to armed conflicts.
Political Purges and Economic Disruption
The Cultural Revolution led to extensive purges within the Communist Party and government. Key figures, including Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, were denounced, removed from power, and persecuted. This allowed Mao to eliminate rivals and consolidate his power. Economically, the country suffered severe disruption. Agricultural output declined as collectivization and rural policies were enforced erratically, and industrial production was hampered by the persecution of skilled workers and managers, leading to a significant setback in China's development. The education system effectively ceased to function for several years, creating a generation with limited academic opportunities.
End of the Cultural Revolution and Legacy
By the late 1960s, the escalating chaos led Mao to deploy the People's Liberation Army to restore order. The Red Guards were eventually suppressed and many sent to the countryside. The Cultural Revolution officially ended with Mao Zedong's death in September 1976. Soon after, the 'Gang of Four' – a radical faction led by Mao's wife, Jiang Qing – was arrested, signalling a shift away from the extreme policies of the Cultural Revolution. Its legacy includes deep social trauma, a lost generation, and a period of political instability, though it also shaped the subsequent reform era, as later leaders sought to prevent similar upheavals.
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