Personal Rule to Restoration 1629-1660 Revision Notes

The Commonwealth (1649-1653): An Attempted Republic

Following the execution of Charles I in January 1649, England was declared a Commonwealth, a republic without a king. The Rump Parliament, a reduced assembly purged of Royalist and moderate members, held power. Key challenges included establishing a new constitution, dealing with Royalist and Irish rebellions, and managing the powerful New Model Army. Oliver Cromwell played a crucial role in suppressing revolts in Ireland and Scotland, consolidating the Commonwealth's authority. However, the Rump Parliament struggled with governance, seen as corrupt and inefficient, leading to its dissolution by Cromwell in 1653, paving the way for the Protectorate.

The Protectorate (1653-1659): Cromwell's Rule

Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector in December 1653 under the Instrument of Government, England's first written constitution. This established a system with a single person (Cromwell) and a Parliament, though Cromwell often ruled with the support of the army. His rule was characterized by a desire for 'godly' reformation, enforcing Puritan morality (e.g., banning Christmas and theatre). He implemented administrative reforms and pursued an active foreign policy. However, Cromwell faced constant challenges from both Royalists and republican radicals, and his attempts to work with Parliament were often frustrated. His death in 1658 and the subsequent weak leadership of his son Richard led to the collapse of the Protectorate.

Religious Changes and Toleration

The Interregnum saw a dramatic shift in religious landscape. The Anglican Church was disestablished, and its bishops removed. Presbyterianism was dominant in Parliament for a time, but Cromwell's military victories increased the influence of religious Independents within the New Model Army. This led to greater religious toleration for various Protestant sects, including Baptists, Congregationalists, and Quakers, who were allowed to worship freely, unlike in previous periods. However, this toleration did not extend to Catholics, Anglicans, or Unitarians, who continued to face significant restrictions and persecution. Cromwell's personal belief in 'liberty of conscience' shaped this policy, though it was always balanced with a desire for a morally upright society.

Reasons for the Failure of the Republic

The failure of the republic and the eventual Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 can be attributed to several factors. There was widespread unpopularity of military rule and heavy taxation. The strict Puritan moral code imposed by Cromwell alienated many people. Attempts at parliamentary government failed, often due to clashes with Cromwell. The absence of a clear and accepted successor after Cromwell's death destabilized the Protectorate. There was also persistent Royalist sentiment and a longing for stability and traditional governance, which culminated in the invitation for Charles II to return, marking the end of this unique period of political and religious experimentation.

The Personal Rule (1629-1640): Key Issues

After dissolving Parliament in 1629, King Charles I ruled for eleven years without it, a period known as the 'Personal Rule' or 'Eleven Years' Tyranny'. His main motivations were to exercise greater control over government finances and religious policy without parliamentary interference. To raise money, Charles exploited old feudal methods and controversial taxes. Most notable was Ship Money, traditionally levied on coastal towns for naval defence during wartime, but extended to inland counties and demanded annually by Charles in peacetime. This was widely seen as an illegal tax, as it lacked parliamentary consent, and sparked significant resistance, such as John Hampden's refusal to pay. Religiously, Charles favoured Arminianism, a branch of Anglicanism characterised by a focus on ceremony and the authority of bishops, which many Puritans saw as too close to Catholicism. Archbishop William Laud was instrumental in enforcing these policies, promoting uniformity and persecuting dissenters through the Star Chamber and Court of High Commission. These actions created deep resentment among many of his subjects, particularly the Puritan gentry and merchants who felt their rights and religious beliefs were being undermined.

The Short and Long Parliaments (1640-1642)

The 'Personal Rule' ended abruptly when Charles I was forced to recall Parliament in 1640 due to financial needs stemming from the 'Bishops' Wars' with Scotland. These wars were a result of his attempt to impose the English Prayer Book on the Presbyterian Scots, leading to a Scottish invasion of northern England. The first Parliament, known as the Short Parliament, sat for only three weeks as Charles dissolved it after it refused to grant him funds without addressing their grievances. However, with the Scots still occupying English territory and demanding payment, Charles had no choice but to call another Parliament – the Long Parliament, which convened in November 1640. This Parliament, led by figures like John Pym, seized the opportunity to dismantle the King's 'Personal Rule'. They passed legislation to curb royal power, including the Triennial Act (requiring Parliament to be summoned at least every three years), the abolition of Ship Money and the Star Chamber, and the impeachment and execution of prominent royal advisors like Thomas Wentworth (Earl of Strafford) and Archbishop Laud. The political landscape was irrevocably changed, shifting power significantly towards Parliament.

Further Escalation: The Grand Remonstrance and Attempted Arrest

As the Long Parliament continued, the divisions between Parliament and the King deepened. In November 1641, Parliament presented Charles with the 'Grand Remonstrance', a list of 204 grievances against his government since the beginning of his reign, coupled with demands for parliamentary control over ministers and army appointments. Although it passed Parliament by a small margin, it demonstrated the extent of parliamentary dissatisfaction and their desire to fundamentally reshape the balance of power. Charles viewed this as an unacceptable attack on his royal prerogative. The final major trigger for civil war came in January 1642, when Charles, believing some Members of Parliament were colluding with the Scots and inciting rebellion, attempted to arrest five leading Members of Parliament (including John Pym and John Hampden) on charges of treason. He burst into the House of Commons with armed guards, but the members had already been forewarned and escaped. This failed attempt was a profound breach of parliamentary privilege and was perceived as an act of tyranny, solidifying support for Parliament against the King. This event made it clear that a peaceful resolution was unlikely, and both sides began to prepare for armed conflict, with Charles leaving London.

Political Consequences: Execution of Charles I and the Commonwealth

The most significant political impact was the trial and execution of King Charles I in 1649. This unprecedented event marked the end of the traditional monarchy and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England, a republic. The House of Lords was also abolished, making Parliament the sole legislative body. Oliver Cromwell emerged as a dominant figure, eventually becoming Lord Protector. This period challenged the concept of the divine right of kings and demonstrated that a ruler could be held accountable by the people, laying foundational ideas for future constitutional developments, even after the monarchy was restored in 1660.

Religious Changes: Puritan Dominance and Sectarianism

Religiously, the war led to the ascendancy of Puritanism. The Anglican Church, with its bishops and ceremonies, was dismantled. The Book of Common Prayer was forbidden, replaced by a Directory of Public Worship. Presbyterianism was briefly established as the national church, though its strict doctrines were not universally accepted. The breakdown of censorship during the war also enabled the proliferation of various radical Protestant sects, including Baptists, Quakers, Diggers, and Ranters, who advocated for greater religious freedom and sometimes challenged social hierarchies. This diversity complicated attempts to establish a uniform national church.

Parliamentary Power and the Army's Role

The war significantly strengthened the power of Parliament, which gradually asserted its authority over the King. The formation of the New Model Army, a professional and ideologically motivated force, was crucial to Parliament's victory. This army later became a powerful political entity in its own right, influencing parliamentary decisions and even purging members hostile to its agenda (Pride's Purge). The army's independence and its internal religious diversity also contributed to the spread of radical political and religious ideas, demonstrating the military's newfound influence in English politics.

Long-term Impact on Constitutional Monarchy

Although the monarchy was restored in 1660, the events of 1642-1649 permanently altered the relationship between the monarch and Parliament. The Civil War demonstrated Parliament's power to resist royal absolutism and articulated the principle that the King was subject to the law. This laid the groundwork for the development of a constitutional monarchy, where the monarch's power is limited by parliamentary legislation. The debate over the nature of government and the rights of subjects continued to shape English political thought for centuries, culminating in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the Bill of Rights.