OCR GCSE History A revision notes
The USA 1945-1974 Revision Notes
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The USA 1945-1974
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Government and Dissent (c. 1964-1974): An Overview Revision Notes
Economic Challenges and Government Responses
Between 1964 and 1974, the UK economy faced persistent issues including a balance of payments deficit, high inflation, and industrial stagnation. Labour governments under Harold Wilson initially focused on modernisation and technological advancement but struggled with currency issues and pressure to devalue the pound. Attempts to control wages and prices, such as 'In Place of Strife', met strong trade union resistance. Edward Heath's Conservative government (1970-1974) pursued a more free-market approach but faced an oil crisis and major industrial disputes, particularly involving miners, leading to a three-day week and states of emergency. These economic pressures significantly shaped government policy and contributed to public dissatisfaction.
Industrial Relations and Trade Union Power
Trade unions held considerable power during this period and were a major source of dissent. They frequently used strikes to demand higher wages and protest government policies, often causing significant disruption. Key events include the seamen's strike of 1966, the dockers' strike of 1967, and most notably, the miners' strikes of 1972 and 1974. The 1974 strike, in particular, crippled the country's energy supply, leading to a state of emergency and contributing to the downfall of Heath's government. Both Labour and Conservative governments attempted to curb union power, but largely unsuccessfully, highlighting the strength of organised labour and its impact on national governance.
Social Change and Protest Movements
The era witnessed significant social change and the rise of various protest movements. The women's liberation movement gained momentum, advocating for equal pay and opportunities. Anti-racism campaigns challenged discrimination, leading to legislation like the 1965 and 1968 Race Relations Acts. Student protests, inspired by wider global movements, voiced concerns about university structures and societal issues. Protests against the Vietnam War also occurred, reflecting a growing anti-establishment sentiment among sections of the youth. These movements collectively contributed to a climate of demanding change and challenging traditional authority, influencing government social policies.
Political Instability and Electoral Outcomes
The period saw a high degree of political instability, with shifts in government and narrow electoral outcomes. Harold Wilson's Labour Party won in 1964 and 1966, but a period of economic difficulty and unpopular union policies led to a surprise Conservative victory under Edward Heath in 1970. Heath's government struggled with industrial relations and economic management, culminating in the 'Who Governs Britain?' election of February 1974, which resulted in a hung parliament. Labour returned to power later that year in a second general election. This political volatility reflected the deep divisions and challenges facing the country, and the struggle of successive governments to maintain public confidence amidst crises.
Civil Rights in the USA 1954-1964: Key Developments and Impact Revision Notes
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and its Aftermath
This Supreme Court ruling declared state laws establishing separate public schools for Black and white students unconstitutional. It overturned the 'separate but equal' doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). While a legal victory, its implementation was slow and met with significant resistance, particularly in the South. This judicial decision served as a crucial catalyst, legitimizing the call for desegregation and encouraging civil rights activists to intensify their efforts against other forms of segregation.
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)
Initiated by Rosa Parks' arrest for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger, this boycott lasted 381 days. Led by Martin Luther King Jr., it demonstrated the effectiveness of non-violent mass protest and inflicted economic pressure on the bus company. The Supreme Court eventually ruled bus segregation unconstitutional in Alabama, marking a major success for the movement and elevating King to national leadership. It showcased the power of organized community action.
Little Rock Nine (1957)
Nine African American students attempted to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. They faced violent opposition from white mobs and state authorities, including Governor Orval Faubus, who used the National Guard to block their entry. President Eisenhower responded by federalizing the Arkansas National Guard and dispatching paratroopers to protect the students, enforcing the Brown v. Board ruling. This event highlighted the federal government's authority in upholding civil rights, though direct intervention was rare.
Key Tactics and Organisations in the Movement
The Civil Rights Movement employed various tactics including non-violent direct action (sit-ins, freedom rides, marches), legal challenges (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, NAACP), and voter registration drives. Significant organizations included the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) led by King, advocating non-violence; the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) focusing on youth activism; and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) pioneering freedom rides. These combined strategies built momentum towards legislative change.
Post-war Challenges in the USA (1945-1954) Revision Notes
Economic Transition and Prosperity
Following World War Two, the USA faced the task of transitioning its economy from wartime production to peacetime. Millions of soldiers returning from overseas service needed jobs, and factories that had produced tanks and munitions had to retool for consumer goods. Initially, there were fears of a post-war economic slump, similar to the aftermath of World War I. However, a combination of factors led to a period of unprecedented economic prosperity. American consumers, who had saved money during the war due to rationing and limited availability of goods, had substantial purchasing power. This pent-up demand, particularly for housing, automobiles, and new appliances, spurred industrial growth and job creation. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, commonly known as the GI Bill, provided returning veterans with educational opportunities, unemployment benefits, and low-interest loans for homes and businesses, further stimulating the economy and creating a new middle class.
Social Changes and Civil Rights
The war years brought significant social shifts that profoundly impacted the post-war era. Migration to industrial centres for war work, particularly by African Americans from the South, increased urban populations and highlighted racial disparities. African American soldiers, having fought alongside white soldiers and experienced less overt racism abroad, returned to a segregated United States, intensifying their demands for equality. This period saw the nascent stages of the Civil Rights Movement. President Truman took some steps, such as desegregating the armed forces in 1948, but widespread institutional discrimination persisted. Women, who had entered the workforce in large numbers during the war, were often expected to return to traditional domestic roles, yet their wartime contributions had demonstrated their capabilities, subtly challenging societal norms and laying groundwork for future feminist movements. These social tensions were a major challenge for the USA.
The Dawn of the Cold War and McCarthyism
Internationally, the immediate post-war period was dominated by the emergence of the Cold War, a geopolitical struggle between the USA and the Soviet Union. This rivalry fueled a deep-seated fear of communism within American society. Domestically, this fear manifested as McCarthyism, named after Senator Joseph McCarthy, who spearheaded a campaign of intense anti-communist suspicion and persecution. Thousands of Americans were accused of being communists or communist sympathisers, often with little evidence, leading to blacklisting, job losses, and public condemnation. Government employees, Hollywood figures, and intellectuals were particularly targeted. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) played a significant role in these investigations. This period saw a curtailment of civil liberties in the name of national security, creating a climate of fear and conformity. The Korean War (1950-1953) further intensified these anxieties and solidified America's commitment to containing communism globally.
Political Responses and Legislative Action
In response to these challenges, the US government pursued various political and legislative actions. Regarding labour, the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 was passed over President Truman's veto, limiting the power of labor unions, which had grown significantly during the war. This act was seen by many as a rollback of New Deal-era protections for workers. In foreign policy, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan were initiated to counter Soviet influence and rebuild war-torn Europe, marking the beginning of a long period of American international leadership. Domestically, President Truman's 'Fair Deal' sought to expand New Deal programs, including proposals for national health insurance, federal aid to education, and civil rights legislation, though many of these initiatives faced significant opposition and were not fully enacted. The government's response to the Cold War also involved creating new security agencies and investing heavily in military research and development.
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