Living under Nazi Rule, 1933-1945 Revision Notes

Methods of Nazi Control (1933-1939)

The Nazi regime established comprehensive control through various methods. Politically, the Enabling Act (1933) removed the Reichstag's power, allowing Hitler to rule by decree. All other political parties were banned. The Gestapo (secret police) and SS (Schutzstaffel) instilled fear through arbitrary arrests, torture, and detention in concentration camps. Propaganda, led by Joseph Goebbels, used newspapers, radio, films, and rallies to promote Nazi ideology and demonise 'enemies'. Censorship was strict, controlling all media and arts. Education and youth organisations, like the Hitler Youth, indoctrinated young people with Nazi beliefs. Legal reforms dismantled the independent judiciary, ensuring laws served the regime's aims. Economic control included policies like the Four-Year Plan to achieve autarky and rearmament, consolidating power through perceived economic success.

Forms of Opposition to the Nazi Regime

Despite extreme repression, various groups and individuals resisted the Nazi regime, though often with limited success. Political opposition from communists and socialists continued underground, printing leaflets and organising small cells, but faced severe crackdowns. Trade unions were banned, but some members engaged in passive resistance, such as go-slows or absenteeism. Religious opposition came from some Protestant pastors (e.g., Martin Niemöller, Dietrich Bonhoeffer) who formed the Confessing Church, and some Catholic priests, who objected to Nazi interference in church affairs or policies. Youth groups, such as the Edelweiss Pirates and Swing Kids, offered cultural defiance through non-conformist behaviour and music. Passive resistance from ordinary citizens included listening to foreign radio, telling anti-Nazi jokes, or refusing to give the Nazi salute. Military opposition was rare in this early period but began to form among a few high-ranking officers.

Effectiveness and Limitations of Opposition

The effectiveness of opposition in Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1939 was severely limited. The primary reasons for this were the pervasive nature of Nazi terror, including the Gestapo, SS, and concentration camps, which crushed dissent ruthlessly. Propaganda was highly effective in creating a sense of national unity and demonising opposition, making it difficult for resistance movements to gain widespread public support. Many Germans were also genuinely supportive of the regime, especially due to perceived improvements in the economy and national pride. Opposition movements were often fragmented, lacked coordination, and suffered from internal divisions. The constant surveillance and fear meant that large-scale, organised resistance was nearly impossible to sustain, leading to small, isolated acts that rarely threatened the regime's power structure. The lack of a clear, unifying alternative vision also hampered their efforts.

The Reichstag Fire and its Aftermath

On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag (German Parliament) building was set on fire. The Nazis quickly blamed a Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, and used the incident to claim a communist uprising was imminent. This allowed Hitler to persuade President Hindenburg to issue the 'Decree for the Protection of People and State' (Reichstag Fire Decree) on 28 February 1933. This decree suspended key civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and press, and allowed for arbitrary arrest and detention without trial. It provided a legal basis for persecuting political opponents, especially communists and social democrats, weakening opposition before the crucial March 1933 elections.

The Enabling Act (March 1933)

Despite the Reichstag Fire Decree, the Nazis did not win an outright majority in the March 1933 elections. Hitler needed a two-thirds majority in the Reichstag to pass the Enabling Act, which would allow him to make laws without the Reichstag's consent or the President's approval. He achieved this by banning communist deputies, intimidating others, and securing support from the Centre Party. Passed on 23 March 1933, the Enabling Act effectively marked the end of democracy in Germany, giving Hitler dictatorial powers for four years and forming the legal basis for his authoritarian rule.

Suppression of Opposition and Gleichschaltung

Following the Enabling Act, the Nazis swiftly moved to eliminate all other sources of potential opposition. Trade unions were abolished in May 1933 and replaced by the German Labour Front (DAF). Other political parties were banned, culminating in the 'Law Against the Formation of New Parties' in July 1933, which made the Nazi Party the only legal political party in Germany. All state governments were brought under Nazi control, and key institutions like the civil service, judiciary, and education system were 'coordinated' or 'Nazified' (Gleichschaltung) to align with Nazi ideology, ensuring total control over German society.

Night of the Long Knives and Hindenburg's Death

By mid-1934, Ernst Röhm, leader of the SA (Sturmabteilung), had become a threat to Hitler. The SA's radicalism and desire for a 'second revolution' alienated the army, and Röhm's growing power concerned Hitler. On 30 June 1934, during the 'Night of the Long Knives', Hitler eliminated Röhm and other prominent SA leaders, as well as political opponents like Gregor Strasser and former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher. This brutal purge solidified Hitler's power, secured the army's loyalty, and removed internal opposition. Shortly after, President Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934. Hitler immediately merged the offices of Chancellor and President, declaring himself 'Führer and Reich Chancellor', and demanded an oath of personal loyalty from the armed forces. This completed the establishment of his dictatorship.

The Nature of Nazi Occupation

Nazi occupation of European territories was highly varied. In some areas, like much of Western Europe (e.g., France, Norway), Germany established direct military or civilian administrations, often exploiting local resources and labor. In these regions, local populations sometimes faced rationing, curfews, and political repression, but the initial phase might not have involved immediate mass extermination. However, all occupied territories were subject to Nazi racial policies. In Eastern Europe, particularly Poland and parts of the Soviet Union, the occupation was far more brutal. The Nazis viewed these regions as 'Lebensraum' (living space) for Germans, aiming to Germanise or exterminate the existing populations. This led to widespread mass killings, forced displacement, and the systematic destruction of cultural and national identities, paving the way for the Holocaust.

The Holocaust: Stages and Implementation

The Holocaust was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. It was not a single event but a process that unfolded in stages. Initially, Jews faced legal discrimination (e.g., Nuremberg Laws 1935), exclusion from public life, and economic boycotts. Following the invasion of Poland in 1939, Jews were forced into overcrowded ghettos, often facing starvation and disease. The invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 marked a radicalisation of policy, leading to mass shootings by Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing squads). Finally, from 1942, the 'Final Solution' involved the deportation of Jews from across Europe to extermination camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, and Sobibor, where they were murdered, often in gas chambers. Other groups, including Roma, disabled people, and Soviet POWs, were also systematically targeted.

European Responses: Collaboration

Responses to Nazi occupation across Europe were complex and often contradictory. Collaboration took various forms, from willing cooperation by governments and individuals to passive acceptance or participation driven by fear or self-preservation. Governments in some occupied countries, such as Vichy France, actively collaborated with the Nazis, implementing antisemitic laws and assisting in the round-up and deportation of Jewish citizens. Local police forces and administrative officials in many countries, including the Netherlands, Belgium, and Eastern European nations, played a role in identifying and deporting Jews. Economic collaboration was also widespread, with businesses and industries often forced or willing to contribute to the German war effort. Motivations for collaboration included ideological alignment with Nazism, anti-communism, pre-existing antisemitism, economic gain, or a belief that collaboration was the only way to ensure national survival or reduce suffering.

European Responses: Resistance

Resistance to Nazi occupation also manifested in many ways. Armed resistance involved guerrilla warfare, sabotage of infrastructure (railways, factories), and attacks on German personnel, notably in Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Soviet Union. Non-violent resistance included acts of civil disobedience, maintaining underground presses, cultural defiance, and hiding persecuted individuals. Rescue efforts, often by individuals or small networks, saved thousands of lives by providing forged documents, safe houses, and escape routes. Denmark famously evacuated most of its Jewish population to neutral Sweden. Resistance movements were often fragmented, operating secretly, and faced brutal German reprisals. The motivations for resistance were diverse, including patriotism, anti-fascism, humanitarianism, and religious convictions. The effectiveness of resistance varied greatly depending on German control, local support, and available resources.

Initial Impact and 'Blitzkrieg' Successes

In the early years of the war (1939-1941), Germany experienced significant military successes through its 'Blitzkrieg' tactics. This allowed the Nazi regime to largely avoid widespread civilian hardship, maintaining a 'guns and butter' policy where consumer goods and food supply were relatively stable. Morale was generally high due to rapid victories and effective propaganda. However, preparations for a long war were already underway, with resource allocation shifting gradually towards the military, setting the stage for future sacrifices.

Total War and Economic Mobilisation

After the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 and the entry of the USA, Germany moved towards total war. This meant a complete reorganisation of the economy and society to support the war effort. Rationing became much stricter for food, clothing, and fuel. Women were increasingly conscripted into the workforce, taking on roles previously held by men in factories, agriculture, and support services. Non-essential industries were shut down, and resources were diverted to armaments production. This intense mobilisation aimed to maximise output for the front, but put enormous strain on the civilian population.

Allied Bombing Campaigns and Civilian Morale

From 1942 onwards, Allied bombing campaigns intensified, targeting German cities and industrial centres. This resulted in widespread destruction of homes, infrastructure, and factories, causing immense civilian casualties and mass displacement. Major cities like Hamburg, Dresden, and Berlin suffered catastrophic damage. The constant threat of air raids and the loss of loved ones severely impacted civilian morale. Despite this, Nazi propaganda continued to portray the bombings as acts of terror against innocent Germans, attempting to foster resilience and hatred for the enemy, though its effectiveness waned over time.

The 'Final Solution' and Repression on the Home Front

The war provided a cover for the Nazi regime to accelerate the 'Final Solution' and the genocide of Jews and other persecuted groups. While most Germans were not direct perpetrators, many were aware of or benefited from the systematic persecution and plunder. On the home front, dissent was brutally suppressed. The Gestapo and SS maintained a tight grip, using terror and surveillance to eliminate any opposition. As the war turned against Germany, this repression intensified, with more arrests, executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps for those deemed 'enemies of the state' or 'defeatists', ensuring continued, albeit coerced, compliance.