OCR GCSE Psychology revision notes
Criminal psychology Revision Notes
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Criminal psychology
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Cooper and Mackie (1986) Study on Video Games and Aggression Revision Notes
Aim and Methodology
Cooper and Mackie (1986) aimed to investigate the immediate impact of playing aggressive versus non-aggressive video games on aggressive behaviour in children. Their study was a laboratory experiment, involving 84 children aged 8-10 years old. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: playing an aggressive video game, playing a non-aggressive video game, or completing a puzzle (control group). Random assignment helps to ensure that any differences in aggression observed are due to the video game played rather than pre-existing individual characteristics, thus increasing the internal validity of the study.
Procedure and Measures
After playing the allocated video game or completing the puzzle, children participated in a free-play session. During this session, researchers observed specific behaviours to measure aggression. Key measures included the amount of time spent playing with an aggressive toy (a 'zapper gun') and the number of balloons popped that were said to belong to another child. These measures were designed to provide quantitative data on aggressive tendencies following exposure to the different conditions. The use of a control group allowed for comparison, helping to isolate the effect of video game play.
Key Findings and Conclusions
The study found that children who played the aggressive video game spent more time playing with the aggressive toy and popped more balloons compared to those who played the non-aggressive game or were in the control group. This led to the conclusion that playing aggressive video games can lead to a short-term increase in aggressive behaviour in children. The findings suggested a 'copycat effect' through imitation and a 'desensitisation effect', where exposure to aggressive content might reduce sensitivity to aggressive cues, potentially leading to increased aggressive actions.
Evaluation: Strengths and Weaknesses
A strength of this study is its use of a laboratory setting, which allowed for strict control over extraneous variables and precise measurement of behaviour, increasing internal validity. Random assignment also minimised participant variables. However, the study faces criticisms: the artificial nature of the lab environment and the specific aggressive behaviours measured (e.g., popping balloons) might not reflect real-world aggression, raising questions about ecological validity. Additionally, ethical concerns arise from exposing children to aggressive content and potentially encouraging aggressive behaviours, even if temporary. The long-term effects of such exposure were not investigated.
Heaven's 1996 Study: Delinquency, Personality, and Self-Esteem Revision Notes
Aim and Methodology of Heaven (1996)
Heaven's 1996 study aimed to explore the predictive power of personality traits (extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism, based on Eysenck's theory) and self-esteem for delinquent behaviour in adolescents. It was a longitudinal study, meaning the same participants were followed and measured over a period of time. The research involved 282 adolescents (13-15 years old initially) from two Australian high schools. They completed questionnaires measuring personality, self-esteem, and self-reported delinquency at two points: Time 1 and Time 2, two years later. This design allowed researchers to observe how changes or stability in these psychological factors related to changes in delinquent behaviour over time.
Key Findings of the Study
The study found significant correlations between certain psychological factors and delinquency. Specifically, high levels of psychoticism, as measured by Eysenck's scales, were consistently associated with increased delinquent behaviour. Neuroticism was also found to be a predictor, though less strongly than psychoticism. Extraversion showed a weak or inconsistent link. Crucially, low self-esteem was identified as a significant predictor of higher delinquency. The reverse was also true: higher self-esteem was associated with lower engagement in delinquent acts. These findings suggest that a combination of specific personality traits and one's self-perception plays a role in the propensity for delinquency.
Evaluation of Heaven (1996)
A strength of Heaven's study is its longitudinal design, which allows for the assessment of predictive relationships over time, strengthening claims about cause and effect compared to cross-sectional studies. The use of self-report questionnaires gathered data directly from adolescents, reflecting their perceptions. However, self-report can be a limitation due to social desirability bias, where participants might under-report delinquent acts or exaggerate desirable traits. The study was conducted on a specific sample of Australian adolescents, limiting generalisability to other cultures or age groups. While the study identified correlations, it doesn't establish direct causation; other unmeasured factors could also contribute to delinquency.
Links to Eysenck's Theory
Heaven's 1996 study built upon Eysenck's theory of personality, which proposes that personality is largely genetically determined and consists of three dimensions: extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-stability, and psychoticism-socialisation. Eysenck suggested that individuals with high psychoticism, neuroticism, and extraversion are more likely to engage in criminal or delinquent behaviour due to their difficulty in conditioning and their sensation-seeking tendencies. Heaven's findings, particularly the strong link between psychoticism and delinquency, and the lesser role of neuroticism, provide empirical support for aspects of Eysenck's theoretical framework, suggesting that personality is a relevant factor in understanding behaviour like delinquency.
Understanding Punishment, Deterrence, and Rehabilitation in Psychology Revision Notes
What is Punishment?
Punishment involves the imposition of an undesirable consequence or the removal of a desirable one following a behaviour, with the intention of reducing the frequency of that behaviour. In the context of criminal justice, this can include imprisonment, fines, or community orders. Psychologically, punishment functions as a form of operant conditioning, aiming to suppress unwanted actions. Its effectiveness is debated, as it may only suppress behaviour in certain contexts or lead to resentment rather than genuine behaviour change. Types of punishment include positive punishment (adding an unpleasant stimulus, e.g., a fine) and negative punishment (removing a pleasant stimulus, e.g., loss of privileges).
Understanding Deterrence
Deterrence is a specific aim of punishment that seeks to prevent future criminal acts. It operates on two levels: general deterrence and individual deterrence. General deterrence aims to discourage the wider public from committing crimes by publicly punishing offenders, making an example of them. The idea is that witnessing the consequences suffered by others will deter potential offenders. Individual deterrence, on the other hand, is focused on preventing the specific offender from re-offending after they have experienced punishment. For deterrence to be effective, punishment needs to be perceived as certain, swift, and severe enough to outweigh the perceived benefits of the crime.
Focus of Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation is an approach that aims to re-integrate offenders into society by addressing the root causes of their criminal behaviour and equipping them with the skills and mindset to live a crime-free life. This can involve therapy (e.g., cognitive behavioural therapy to challenge criminal thinking patterns), educational programmes, vocational training, and drug or alcohol treatment. The goal is to facilitate personal growth and social responsibility, reducing recidivism rates by changing the offender's readiness to offend. Unlike punishment and deterrence, which are largely backward-looking (addressing past acts), rehabilitation is forward-looking, focusing on future positive change.
Evaluating Effectiveness
Psychologists evaluate the effectiveness of punishment, deterrence, and rehabilitation by examining various outcome measures. For punishment and deterrence, primary measures include recidivism rates (the rate at which offenders re-offend after release) and crime statistics within a population. Low recidivism suggests individual deterrence might be working, while overall falling crime rates might suggest general deterrence. For rehabilitation, measures would include not only recidivism but also successful employment post-release, educational attainment, changes in pro-social attitudes, and mental health improvements. Research often compares different approaches to determine which methods are most effective in reducing re-offending and promoting pro-social behaviour, often concluding that a combination of approaches tailored to the individual is most effective.
Social Learning Theory of Criminality (SLT) Revision Notes
Core Principles of Social Learning Theory (SLT) in Crime
Social Learning Theory suggests that criminal behaviour is not innate but learned through social interactions. Key mechanisms include observation, imitation, and modelling. Individuals learn by watching others (role models) and observing the consequences of their actions. If a role model's criminal behaviour is rewarded or goes unpunished, the observer is more likely to imitate it themselves. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This theory differs from purely behavioural theories by integrating cognitive processes like attention, retention, and motivation as crucial steps in the learning process, making it a more comprehensive explanation for complex human behaviours like criminality.
Stages of Observational Learning
Albert Bandura outlined four stages involved in observational learning, which are directly applicable to learning criminal behaviour. Firstly, attention refers to the degree to which an observer notices the model's behaviour. If a child doesn't pay attention to a gang member's actions, they can't learn from them. Secondly, retention involves remembering the observed behaviour. This means storing the information for future use. Thirdly, reproduction is the ability of the observer to physically perform the learned behaviour. Finally, motivation is the desire to replicate the behaviour, often driven by expectations of reward (direct or vicarious) or avoiding punishment. Without effective motivation, imitation is unlikely, even if the other three stages are met.
Role Models and Reinforcement
In the context of criminality, role models are crucial. These can be family members (e.g., parents, older siblings), peers (e.g., gang members), or even figures from media. The impact of a role model is significant if they are perceived as powerful, successful, or similar to the observer. Reinforcement plays a vital role. If a role model's criminal act leads to positive outcomes (e.g., gaining money, status, or avoiding a difficult situation) or goes unpunished, this acts as vicarious reinforcement, increasing the likelihood of the observer imitating the behaviour. Conversely, if the role model is punished, it acts as vicarious punishment, decreasing the likelihood of imitation.
Strengths and Weaknesses of SLT in Explaining Crime
A strength of SLT is its comprehensive nature, considering cognitive processes that purely behavioural theories ignore. It can explain why criminal behaviour can differ across cultures and social groups, as it is learned from specific environments. It also provides a basis for intervention strategies that focus on positive role models and altering reinforcement patterns. However, a weakness is its difficulty in explaining impulsive or spontaneous criminal acts that don't appear to be learned through observation. It also struggles to account for individual differences in susceptibility to learn criminal behaviour, as not everyone exposed to criminal models becomes a criminal. Furthermore, it may oversimplify the complex biological and psychological factors that contribute to criminal behaviour, focusing too heavily on environmental learning.
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