Psychological problems Revision Notes

Aim and Methodology of Tandoc et al. (2015)

The primary aim of Tandoc, Ferrucci, and Duffy's (2015) study was to examine the link between Facebook use and depressive symptoms among college students, specifically exploring the mediating role of social comparison. Their methodology involved a quantitative, correlational approach. They surveyed a group of college students using self-report questionnaires. These questionnaires measured three key variables: the frequency and intensity of Facebook usage, the extent to which participants engaged in social comparison (comparing themselves to others on social media), and their self-reported levels of depressive symptoms. The use of surveys allowed them to collect data from a relatively large sample, helping to identify patterns and relationships between the variables. However, reliance on self-report data can be subject to social desirability bias or inaccurate recall.

Key Findings about Social Media and Depression

The main findings of Tandoc et al. (2015) revealed a significant positive correlation: increased Facebook use was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms among the college student participants. However, the study went further, demonstrating that this relationship was not direct. Instead, social comparison was identified as a key mediating factor. This means that individuals who spent more time on Facebook and frequently compared themselves negatively to others' idealized posts were more likely to experience depressive symptoms. The implication is that it's not just the sheer amount of time spent on social media, but the cognitive processes during engagement—specifically social comparison—that drive the negative psychological effects. The study emphasized that passive consumption of content leading to upward social comparison (comparing oneself to someone perceived as better off) was particularly problematic.

Evaluation of Tandoc et al. (2015) Study

One strength of Tandoc et al.'s (2015) study is its identification of a mediating variable (social comparison), which provides a more nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between social media and depression, rather than a simplistic direct correlation. This offers valuable insights for interventions. Another strength is its relevance, as it addresses a pervasive contemporary issue affecting a vulnerable demographic (college students). However, the study has several limitations. Being a correlational study, it cannot establish cause and effect; it only shows a relationship. It's possible that individuals already experiencing depression spend more time on social media or engage in more social comparison. The reliance on self-report questionnaires introduces potential biases, such as participants misinterpreting questions, giving socially desirable answers, or having poor self-awareness. Furthermore, the sample consisted solely of college students, limiting the generalizability of the findings to other age groups or populations.

Drug Therapies for Mental Health

Drug therapies involve using medication to treat psychological disorders by altering brain chemistry. For example, antidepressants work by increasing levels of neurotransmitters like serotonin, which are associated with mood regulation (e.g., SSRIs). Anxiolytics are used to reduce anxiety, often by enhancing the effects of GABA, a calming neurotransmitter. Antipsychotics manage symptoms like hallucinations and delusions, typically by blocking dopamine receptors. While effective for symptom reduction, drugs can have side effects and may not address the root causes of the disorder. It is crucial to monitor patients for adverse reactions and efficacy.

Psychotherapy Approaches

Psychotherapy, or talk therapy, encompasses various techniques to help individuals cope with mental health issues by exploring thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is a widely used approach that focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns and maladaptive behaviours. It is often structured and time-limited. Psychodynamic therapy delves into unconscious processes and past experiences to understand current psychological difficulties. Humanistic therapies, such as Rogerian client-centred therapy, emphasize self-actualization and personal growth through empathy and unconditional positive regard. Psychotherapy aims for long-term psychological change and skill development.

Neuropsychology and Brain-Behaviour Relationships

Neuropsychology studies how the brain and nervous system influence behaviour, cognition, and emotion. It investigates the impact of brain damage, disease, or dysfunction on functions like memory, attention, language, and executive functions. Neuropsychological assessment involves using standardized tests to diagnose conditions, understand cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and guide rehabilitation. For instance, after a stroke, a neuropsychologist might assess for language deficits (aphasia) or memory problems. This field is crucial for understanding the biological basis of mental health conditions and informing the development of both pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions.

Understanding the ABC in Ellis's Model

Albert Ellis proposed the ABC model to explain how individuals develop psychological distress, including depression. 'A' stands for an Activating event, which is any event or situation that happens to a person. 'B' represents the Beliefs a person holds about that activating event. These beliefs can be rational or irrational. 'C' signifies the emotional and behavioural Consequences that result from these beliefs. Crucially, the model states that it is not the event (A) itself that causes the consequence (C), but rather the individual's interpretation or belief (B) about the event.

The Role of Irrational Beliefs

Irrational beliefs are at the heart of the ABC model's explanation for depression. These beliefs are often rigid, unrealistic, and self-defeating. Examples include 'I must be approved of by everyone' or 'I must perform perfectly in all tasks.' When an activating event occurs, and a person holds such an irrational belief, it leads to negative and unhealthy emotional and behavioural consequences, such as intense sadness, anxiety, anger, or withdrawal. Rational beliefs, on the other hand, are flexible, realistic, and promote healthy, albeit sometimes negative, emotions like disappointment or sadness, but not debilitating distress.

Applying the Model to Depression

In the context of depression, the ABC model suggests that individuals who become depressed often have developed a schema of irrational beliefs about themselves, the world, or their future. For instance, if someone loses their job (A), an irrational belief (B) might be 'I am completely useless and will never find another job,' leading to severe depressive symptoms (C). A rational belief (B') about the same event might be 'Losing this job is difficult, but I will learn from it and seek new opportunities,' leading to more manageable sadness but not clinical depression. The model implies that changing these irrational beliefs is key to overcoming depression.

Evaluation of the ABC Model

A strength of the ABC model is its emphasis on cognitive processes, highlighting that our thoughts profoundly influence our emotions and behaviours. This has led to effective cognitive-based therapies like Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). However, a limitation is that it might oversimplify the causes of depression, potentially overlooking biological factors (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitter imbalances) or situational factors (e.g., poverty, abuse) that can contribute to the condition, independent of irrational beliefs. While it explains how psychological distress is MAINTAINED, it doesn't fully explain its initial onset for everyone. It also places a lot of responsibility on the individual, which some find empowering, while others may feel blamed.

Characteristics of Clinical Depression

Clinical depression is marked by persistent low mood or loss of pleasure (anhedonia) for at least two weeks, along with several other symptoms. These can be categorised into emotional, behavioural, and cognitive changes. Emotional symptoms include profound sadness, feelings of guilt, emptiness, and helplessness. Behavioural symptoms might involve significant changes in activity levels (either very low or agitated), altered sleep patterns (insomnia or excessive sleeping), and changes in appetite leading to weight loss or gain. Cognitive symptoms encompass difficulties concentrating, impaired decision-making, recurrent thoughts of death, and negative self-perception, sometimes leading to suicidal ideation. These symptoms must cause significant distress or functional impairment to qualify for a diagnosis.

Biological Explanations: Neurotransmitters

A prominent biological explanation for clinical depression is the 'monoamine hypothesis', which suggests an imbalance or deficiency of certain neurotransmitters in the brain. Key neurotransmitters implicated are serotonin and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). Serotonin plays a crucial role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and digestion. Low levels of serotonin are frequently linked to depressive symptoms. Noradrenaline is associated with alertness, energy, interest, and anxiety. Reduced levels of noradrenaline can contribute to fatigue, lack of motivation, and cognitive slowing often seen in depression. Medications like SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) work by increasing the availability of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, supporting this biological theory.

Biological Explanations: Genetics and Brain Structure

Genetic factors are also considered in biological explanations, as research indicates a higher concordance rate for depression in identical twins compared to fraternal twins, suggesting a hereditary component. While no single 'depression gene' has been identified, a combination of genes might increase an individual's vulnerability to the condition. Additionally, structural and functional abnormalities in specific brain regions have been observed. Areas like the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in mood regulation and executive functions, and the hippocampus, crucial for memory and emotional response, often show reduced volume or altered activity in individuals with depression. These brain changes can affect emotional processing and cognitive control.

Biological Explanations: Hormones

Hormonal imbalances, particularly those linked to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, are another biological factor. The HPA axis manages the body's stress response by releasing hormones like cortisol. Chronic stress can lead to dysregulation of the HPA axis, resulting in persistently high levels of cortisol. Elevated cortisol can affect neurotransmitter systems and brain structures, potentially contributing to depressive symptoms. This sustained physiological stress response can impact mood, sleep, and energy levels, reinforcing the link between biological systems and mental health.