Introductory topics in Psychology revision notes

Introductory topics in Psychology

Specification context

Introductory topics in Psychology appears in AQA A-level Psychology 7182.

Topic overview

Students demonstrate knowledge, application, analysis and evaluation of specified Paper 1 psychological concepts, theories, studies, research methods, ethical issues, therapies and treatments. Revise this area by separating AO1 knowledge, AO2 application and AO3 evaluation. Psychology answers need accurate terminology, relevant evidence and clear judgement, not just a list of named studies.

Learning objectives

• Explain types of conformity including internalisation and compliance.
• Explain conformity using informational social influence, normative social influence and variables investigated by Asch.
• Explain obedience using agentic state, legitimacy of authority, Milgram's situational variables and the authoritarian personality.
• Explain resistance to social influence using social support and locus of control.
• Explain minority influence using consistency, commitment and flexibility.
• Describe the multi-store model of memory, including sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory.
• Compare coding, capacity and duration in each store of the multi-store model.
• Describe the working memory model, including the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and episodic buffer.
• Explain forgetting using proactive interference, retroactive interference and retrieval failure from absence of cues.
• Explain factors affecting eyewitness testimony, including leading questions, post-event discussion and anxiety.
• Explain the use of the cognitive interview to improve eyewitness testimony.
• Describe animal studies of attachment by Lorenz and Harlow.
• Explain attachment using learning theory and Bowlby's monotropic theory.
• Explain the concepts of a critical period and an internal working model.
• Describe Ainsworth's Strange Situation and secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment types.
• Explain cultural variations in attachment, including van Ijzendoorn.
• Explain Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation.
• Explain effects of institutionalisation, including the English and Romanian Adoptees project.
• Explain the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships.
• Explain definitions in mental health, including deviation from ideal mental health, deviation from social or cultural norms, failure to function adequately and statistical infrequency.
• Describe behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias, depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• Explain and treat phobias using the behavioural approach, including the two-process model, systematic desensitisation and flooding.
• Explain and treat depression using the cognitive approach, including Beck's negative triad, Ellis's ABC model and cognitive behaviour therapy.
• Explain and treat OCD using the biological approach, including genetic explanations, neural explanations and drug therapy.

Objective-by-objective revision

Social influence: Explain types of conformity including internalisation and compliance.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Social influence. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Social influence: Explain conformity using informational social influence, normative social influence and variables investigated by Asch.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Social influence. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Social influence: Explain obedience using agentic state, legitimacy of authority, Milgram's situational variables and the authoritarian personality.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Social influence. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Social influence: Explain resistance to social influence using social support and locus of control.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Social influence. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Social influence: Explain minority influence using consistency, commitment and flexibility.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Social influence. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Memory: Describe the multi-store model of memory, including sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Memory. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Memory: Compare coding, capacity and duration in each store of the multi-store model.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Memory. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Memory: Describe the working memory model, including the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and episodic buffer.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Memory. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Memory: Explain forgetting using proactive interference, retroactive interference and retrieval failure from absence of cues.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Memory. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Memory: Explain factors affecting eyewitness testimony, including leading questions, post-event discussion and anxiety.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Memory. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Memory: Explain the use of the cognitive interview to improve eyewitness testimony.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Memory. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Describe animal studies of attachment by Lorenz and Harlow.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Explain attachment using learning theory and Bowlby's monotropic theory.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Explain the concepts of a critical period and an internal working model.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Describe Ainsworth's Strange Situation and secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment types.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Explain cultural variations in attachment, including van Ijzendoorn.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Explain Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Explain effects of institutionalisation, including the English and Romanian Adoptees project.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Attachment: Explain the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Attachment. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Clinical Psychology and Mental Health: Explain definitions in mental health, including deviation from ideal mental health, deviation from social or cultural norms, failure to function adequately and statistical infrequency.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Clinical Psychology and Mental Health. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Clinical Psychology and Mental Health: Describe behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias, depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Clinical Psychology and Mental Health. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Clinical Psychology and Mental Health: Explain and treat phobias using the behavioural approach, including the two-process model, systematic desensitisation and flooding.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Clinical Psychology and Mental Health. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Clinical Psychology and Mental Health: Explain and treat depression using the cognitive approach, including Beck's negative triad, Ellis's ABC model and cognitive behaviour therapy.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Clinical Psychology and Mental Health. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Clinical Psychology and Mental Health: Explain and treat OCD using the biological approach, including genetic explanations, neural explanations and drug therapy.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Clinical Psychology and Mental Health. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Key terms

• conformity
• internalisation
• compliance
• Asch
• obedience
• Milgram
• locus of control
• minority influence
• memory
• multi-store model
• working memory model
• interference

Exam focus

For shorter answers, define the concept and use the command word precisely. For extended answers, build a chain: point, evidence, explanation, evaluation and conclusion. If the topic uses research methods or statistics, distinguish experiment from correlation, validity from reliability, qualitative from quantitative data, and significance from practical importance.

AO1 knowledge routine

AO1 is secure when the answer names the psychological concept, gives a precise definition and uses the vocabulary expected by the specification. In this topic, students should avoid writing broad everyday explanations. Each definition should connect to a theory, study, method, biological process, cognitive process, treatment or data issue where the learning objective requires it. Strong AO1 also means selecting relevant detail: a short answer may only need one accurate term, while an extended answer may need a sequence of linked ideas.

AO2 application routine

AO2 is needed when the question gives a stem, scenario, practical context, qualitative material or quantitative data. The answer should not repeat the scenario. It should select the relevant detail and explain how the psychological concept applies to it. If the question includes behaviour, participants, results or data, use those details directly before moving into evaluation. This keeps application separate from description and helps the answer stay anchored to the question.

AO3 evaluation routine

AO3 should explain the impact of evidence rather than merely naming a strength or limitation. A useful structure is: make the evaluative point, give the evidence or method detail, explain why it matters and finish with a judgement. For example, a validity issue matters because it affects whether the findings measure what they claim to measure. A reliability issue matters because it affects consistency. Bias matters because it can limit generalisability or create an unbalanced conclusion.

Common mistakes to avoid

• Do not describe a study and assume that counts as AO3 evaluation.
• Do not claim correlation proves causation.
• Do not treat explanation and treatment as the same thing.
• Do not use generic evaluation words unless you explain why the limitation or strength matters.
• Do not mix Paper 3 option groups when answering an option question.

Revision strategy

Use flashcards for AO1 definitions, MCQs for misconceptions, and short written answers for evidence-evaluation chains. After each answer, check whether you have separated description from evaluation and whether your conclusion follows from the evidence.

Final self-check

Before leaving this topic, write one answer that only describes, one answer that applies and one answer that evaluates. Label the AO used in each sentence. If an evaluation sentence could fit any Psychology topic, make it more specific by adding the study, method, validity issue, reliability issue, ethical issue or data implication. This final check prevents generic writing and prepares students for questions that combine knowledge, application and evaluation in one response.

Building stronger paragraphs

A reliable paragraph structure is point, evidence, reasoning and judgement. The point should name the psychological idea. The evidence should be specific enough to show that the answer is not guessing. The reasoning should explain how the evidence supports, challenges or limits the claim. The judgement should say what this means for confidence in the explanation, method or treatment. This structure is especially useful when the question asks students to discuss or evaluate, because it prevents long descriptive paragraphs that never become analytical.

Method and evidence checks

When evidence comes from research, check the method before writing the conclusion. Experiments can support cause-and-effect reasoning when variables are controlled, but correlations only show relationships. Samples affect generalisability, controls affect internal validity, and repeated or standardised procedures affect reliability. These checks help students explain why evidence is strong or limited rather than simply saying that a study supports the topic.

Making conclusions precise

A conclusion should follow from the evidence already used. If the evidence is limited by bias or weak validity, the conclusion should be cautious. If the evidence is consistent and methodologically strong, the conclusion can be more confident. This does not mean writing a long final paragraph every time; it means ending the answer with a clear implication that matches the quality of the evidence.