Option 2 revision notes

Option 2

Specification context

Option 2 appears in AQA A-level Psychology 7182.

Topic overview

These optional topics extend clinical, biological and health psychology. Revise this area by separating AO1 knowledge, AO2 application and AO3 evaluation. Psychology answers need accurate terminology, relevant evidence and clear judgement, not just a list of named studies.

Learning objectives

• Describe positive symptoms of schizophrenia, including hallucinations and delusions.
• Describe negative symptoms of schizophrenia, including speech poverty and avolition.
• Explain issues in diagnosis, including co-morbidity, culture bias, gender bias and symptom overlap.
• Explain biological explanations for schizophrenia, including genetics and neural correlates.
• Explain psychological explanations for schizophrenia, including family dysfunction and cognitive explanations.
• Explain drug therapy using typical and atypical antipsychotics.
• Explain cognitive behaviour therapy and family therapy as treatments for schizophrenia.
• Explain the interactionist approach and diathesis-stress model in explaining and treating schizophrenia.
• Explain food preferences using evolutionary explanations, neophobia, taste aversion and learning through social and cultural influences.
• Explain neural and hormonal mechanisms in eating behaviour, including the hypothalamus, ghrelin and leptin.
• Explain biological explanations for anorexia nervosa, including genetic and neural explanations.
• Explain psychological explanations for anorexia nervosa, including family systems theory, social learning theory and cognitive theory.
• Explain biological explanations for obesity, including genetic and neural explanations.
• Explain psychological explanations for obesity, including restraint theory, disinhibition and the boundary model.
• Explain the physiology of stress, including general adaptation syndrome, the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system, the sympathomedullary pathway and cortisol.
• Explain the role of stress in illness, including immunosuppression and cardiovascular disorders.
• Explain sources of stress, including life changes, daily hassles and workplace stress.
• Explain methods of measuring stress, including self-report scales and physiological measures.
• Explain individual differences in stress, including personality types A, B and C and hardiness.
• Explain managing and coping with stress, including drug therapy, stress inoculation therapy, biofeedback, gender differences and social support.

Objective-by-objective revision

Schizophrenia: Describe positive symptoms of schizophrenia, including hallucinations and delusions.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Schizophrenia: Describe negative symptoms of schizophrenia, including speech poverty and avolition.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Schizophrenia: Explain issues in diagnosis, including co-morbidity, culture bias, gender bias and symptom overlap.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Schizophrenia: Explain biological explanations for schizophrenia, including genetics and neural correlates.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Schizophrenia: Explain psychological explanations for schizophrenia, including family dysfunction and cognitive explanations.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Schizophrenia: Explain drug therapy using typical and atypical antipsychotics.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Schizophrenia: Explain cognitive behaviour therapy and family therapy as treatments for schizophrenia.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Schizophrenia: Explain the interactionist approach and diathesis-stress model in explaining and treating schizophrenia.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Schizophrenia. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Eating behaviour: Explain food preferences using evolutionary explanations, neophobia, taste aversion and learning through social and cultural influences.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Eating behaviour. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Eating behaviour: Explain neural and hormonal mechanisms in eating behaviour, including the hypothalamus, ghrelin and leptin.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Eating behaviour. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Eating behaviour: Explain biological explanations for anorexia nervosa, including genetic and neural explanations.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Eating behaviour. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Eating behaviour: Explain psychological explanations for anorexia nervosa, including family systems theory, social learning theory and cognitive theory.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Eating behaviour. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Eating behaviour: Explain biological explanations for obesity, including genetic and neural explanations.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Eating behaviour. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Eating behaviour: Explain psychological explanations for obesity, including restraint theory, disinhibition and the boundary model.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Eating behaviour. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Stress: Explain the physiology of stress, including general adaptation syndrome, the hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal system, the sympathomedullary pathway and cortisol.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Stress. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Stress: Explain the role of stress in illness, including immunosuppression and cardiovascular disorders.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Stress. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Stress: Explain sources of stress, including life changes, daily hassles and workplace stress.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Stress. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Stress: Explain methods of measuring stress, including self-report scales and physiological measures.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Stress. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Stress: Explain individual differences in stress, including personality types A, B and C and hardiness.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Stress. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Stress: Explain managing and coping with stress, including drug therapy, stress inoculation therapy, biofeedback, gender differences and social support.

Start with AO1: define the psychological concept, theory, study, method, treatment or data issue named in this objective. Use precise Psychology terminology and keep the wording tied to Stress. Then build AO2 or AO3 where relevant. AO2 applies the idea to a scenario, practical context, qualitative data or quantitative data. AO3 analyses, interprets or evaluates by explaining why evidence, validity, reliability, bias, ethics, generalisability or methodology affects the conclusion. A strong answer avoids unsupported opinion and study-name dumping. It links claim, evidence, method and implication so the evaluation explains why the point matters.

Key terms

• schizophrenia
• hallucinations
• delusions
• speech poverty
• avolition
• diagnosis
• drug
• therapy
• typical
• atypical
• antipsychotics
• family therapy

Exam focus

For shorter answers, define the concept and use the command word precisely. For extended answers, build a chain: point, evidence, explanation, evaluation and conclusion. If the topic uses research methods or statistics, distinguish experiment from correlation, validity from reliability, qualitative from quantitative data, and significance from practical importance.

AO1 knowledge routine

AO1 is secure when the answer names the psychological concept, gives a precise definition and uses the vocabulary expected by the specification. In this topic, students should avoid writing broad everyday explanations. Each definition should connect to a theory, study, method, biological process, cognitive process, treatment or data issue where the learning objective requires it. Strong AO1 also means selecting relevant detail: a short answer may only need one accurate term, while an extended answer may need a sequence of linked ideas.

AO2 application routine

AO2 is needed when the question gives a stem, scenario, practical context, qualitative material or quantitative data. The answer should not repeat the scenario. It should select the relevant detail and explain how the psychological concept applies to it. If the question includes behaviour, participants, results or data, use those details directly before moving into evaluation. This keeps application separate from description and helps the answer stay anchored to the question.

AO3 evaluation routine

AO3 should explain the impact of evidence rather than merely naming a strength or limitation. A useful structure is: make the evaluative point, give the evidence or method detail, explain why it matters and finish with a judgement. For example, a validity issue matters because it affects whether the findings measure what they claim to measure. A reliability issue matters because it affects consistency. Bias matters because it can limit generalisability or create an unbalanced conclusion.

Common mistakes to avoid

• Do not describe a study and assume that counts as AO3 evaluation.
• Do not claim correlation proves causation.
• Do not treat explanation and treatment as the same thing.
• Do not use generic evaluation words unless you explain why the limitation or strength matters.
• Do not mix Paper 3 option groups when answering an option question.

Revision strategy

Use flashcards for AO1 definitions, MCQs for misconceptions, and short written answers for evidence-evaluation chains. After each answer, check whether you have separated description from evaluation and whether your conclusion follows from the evidence.

Final self-check

Before leaving this topic, write one answer that only describes, one answer that applies and one answer that evaluates. Label the AO used in each sentence. If an evaluation sentence could fit any Psychology topic, make it more specific by adding the study, method, validity issue, reliability issue, ethical issue or data implication. This final check prevents generic writing and prepares students for questions that combine knowledge, application and evaluation in one response.

Building stronger paragraphs

A reliable paragraph structure is point, evidence, reasoning and judgement. The point should name the psychological idea. The evidence should be specific enough to show that the answer is not guessing. The reasoning should explain how the evidence supports, challenges or limits the claim. The judgement should say what this means for confidence in the explanation, method or treatment. This structure is especially useful when the question asks students to discuss or evaluate, because it prevents long descriptive paragraphs that never become analytical.

Method and evidence checks

When evidence comes from research, check the method before writing the conclusion. Experiments can support cause-and-effect reasoning when variables are controlled, but correlations only show relationships. Samples affect generalisability, controls affect internal validity, and repeated or standardised procedures affect reliability. These checks help students explain why evidence is strong or limited rather than simply saying that a study supports the topic.

Making conclusions precise

A conclusion should follow from the evidence already used. If the evidence is limited by bias or weak validity, the conclusion should be cautious. If the evidence is consistent and methodologically strong, the conclusion can be more confident. This does not mean writing a long final paragraph every time; it means ending the answer with a clear implication that matches the quality of the evidence.