South Africa 1960-1994 Revision Notes

Escalation of Paramilitary Activity

The 1970s witnessed a drastic increase in the operations of both republican and loyalist paramilitary groups. The Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) intensified its bombing campaigns and armed attacks, targeting British security forces, loyalist paramilitaries, and infrastructure, aiming for a united Ireland. Simultaneously, loyalist groups such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA) launched retaliatory sectarian killings and bombings, asserting their commitment to Northern Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom. This tit-for-tat violence created a cycle of retribution, making daily life incredibly dangerous and increasing the British Army's presence significantly. The British Army's role became increasingly complex, often caught between two hostile communities, leading to incidents that further inflamed tensions.

British Government's Repressive Measures

In response to the escalating violence, the British government implemented several controversial measures. Internment without trial was introduced in August 1971, allowing for the detention of suspected paramilitaries without charge or trial. This policy overwhelmingly targeted the nationalist community and led to widespread accusations of discrimination and human rights abuses, fueling resentment and increasing support for the IRA. Another significant event was Bloody Sunday in January 1972, where soldiers of the British Army's Parachute Regiment shot 26 unarmed civil rights protestors in Derry, killing 14. This event was a turning point, intensifying nationalist anger and leading to a surge in IRA recruitment. The British government also imposed direct rule on Northern Ireland in March 1972, suspending the Stormont Parliament and governing directly from Westminster, highlighting the instability and failure of devolved power.

Sunningdale Agreement and its Failure

Amidst the violence, attempts were made to find a political solution. The Sunningdale Agreement, signed in December 1973, was a significant effort to establish a power-sharing executive for Northern Ireland, including representatives from both nationalist and unionist parties. It also proposed a Council of Ireland to foster cross-border cooperation. However, the agreement faced strong opposition from various quarters. Unionists feared it was a step towards a united Ireland and resented the cross-border element, while republicans believed it did not go far enough. The decisive blow came in May 1974 with the Ulster Workers' Council (UWC) strike. This loyalist-led general strike brought Northern Ireland to a standstill, protesting against the Sunningdale Agreement. The British government's inability to break the strike led to the collapse of the power-sharing executive, demonstrating the profound political divisions and the difficulty of imposing solutions without widespread community buy-in, ensuring the continuation of 'The Troubles'.

Internal Resistance and Key Figures

Internal resistance played a crucial role in dismantling apartheid. The African National Congress (ANC) and its armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe, led resistance through sabotage and political mobilisation. Key figures like Nelson Mandela, despite imprisonment from 1964 to 1990, remained a powerful symbol. Other organisations such as the United Democratic Front (UDF), formed in 1983, united a broad coalition of anti-apartheid groups inside South Africa, coordinating protests, boycotts, and civil disobedience against government policies. Growing township unrest, student uprisings (e.g., Soweto in 1976), and trade union activism (e.g., COSATU) became increasingly difficult for the state to control, demonstrating the widespread opposition to apartheid from within.

International Pressure and Sanctions

International pressure significantly weakened the apartheid regime. The global anti-apartheid movement, supported by various governments, NGOs, and individuals, campaigned for sanctions and boycotts. Economic sanctions, including trade embargoes, divestment from South Africa, and banking restrictions, hurt the country's economy, leading to a decline in GDP, inflation, and capital flight. Cultural and sporting boycotts isolated South Africa, preventing its sports teams and artists from participating in international events, which was a source of national humiliation for the white minority. Organisations like the United Nations and the Commonwealth League consistently condemned apartheid and advocated for its abolition, adding moral and political weight to the pressure.

Economic and Demographic Pressures

By the 1980s, demographic realities were challenging the apartheid system. The rapid growth of the black population compared to the white minority made it increasingly difficult to enforce segregation and maintain white political dominance. The apartheid economy, reliant on cheap black labour but simultaneously restricting black advancement, became inefficient and unsustainable. Sanctions exacerbated economic problems, leading to a shortage of foreign exchange and technology. Businesses, both domestic and international, began to recognise that apartheid was an economic liability rather than an asset, hindering growth and stability. This created internal pressure from the business community for political reform.

Negotiations and Transition to Democracy

The convergence of internal and external pressures ultimately forced the apartheid government to negotiate. F.W. de Klerk, who became State President in 1989, initiated reforms by unbanning the ANC and other organisations, and releasing political prisoners, including Nelson Mandela in February 1990. These actions paved the way for multi-party negotiations involving the National Party, ANC, and other groups, leading to the repeal of discriminatory laws like the Group Areas Act. Difficult and often violent negotiations finally culminated in the drafting of an interim constitution. South Africa held its first multiracial democratic elections in April 1994, with Nelson Mandela elected as president, signaling the formal end of apartheid and the establishment of a democratic, non-racial state.

Internal Resistance: The Shift to Armed Struggle

The 1960s marked a critical turning point for internal opposition to apartheid in South Africa. The Sharpeville Massacre in March 1960, where police killed 69 unarmed PAC protestors, led to widespread outrage and a government crackdown. Shortly after, the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) were banned by the apartheid government. This forced these organisations underground and led to a strategic rethink among resistance leaders. Many concluded that non-violent protest was no longer viable given the state's brutal response. The ANC, under key figures like Nelson Mandela, formed an armed wing called Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation, or MK) in 1961. This group engaged in acts of sabotage against government installations and infrastructure, avoiding targets that would cause loss of life. The PAC also formed Poqo, its own armed wing. This period saw significant arrests, with prominent leaders like Mandela being captured and subsequently tried and imprisoned, which severely impacted the internal resistance movement's momentum for the latter half of the decade.

Key Figures and Trials: Mandela and Rivonia

Nelson Mandela, a prominent leader of the ANC, played a pivotal role in the shift towards armed struggle. After going into hiding in 1961, he travelled abroad to gain support and undergo military training. His capture in 1962 and subsequent trial, culminating in the infamous Rivonia Trial (1963-1964), were major events. At the Rivonia Trial, Mandela and other prominent leaders, including Walter Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, and Ahmed Kathrada, were charged with sabotage and conspiracy to overthrow the government. Mandela's powerful 'I Am Prepared to Die' speech from the dock became a symbol of defiance. Despite facing the death penalty, they were sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island, effectively removing a generation of leadership from the internal struggle. Similarly, PAC leader Robert Sobukwe was repeatedly imprisoned and subjected to severe restrictions, undermining PAC's ability to organise within South Africa during this period.

International Condemnation and Sanctions

The Sharpeville Massacre was a watershed moment for international awareness and condemnation of apartheid. The global outrage spurred increased action by the United Nations (UN), which passed resolutions condemning apartheid and calling for South Africa's isolation. Many newly independent African nations and other Commonwealth countries became vocal critics. Sporting boycotts gained significant traction, with South Africa being expelled from the Olympic movement in 1964 and facing increasing isolation in international cricket and rugby. Cultural boycotts also began to emerge. However, the implementation of comprehensive economic sanctions faced resistance from major Western powers like the UK and USA, who had significant economic ties with South Africa. Despite the growing international pressure, these actions often lacked the teeth to force immediate policy changes from the apartheid government, which largely ignored external criticism.

Impact of Repression: State Power vs. Opposition

The 1960s saw the apartheid government employ increasingly harsh legislation and military force to suppress all forms of opposition. Laws like the 'Sabotage Act' (1962) and the '90-day detention law' (1963) allowed for arbitrary arrests and detention without trial, making it incredibly difficult for resistance movements to operate. The state's intelligence apparatus was extensive, leading to the capture of many key leaders. By the end of the decade, internal opposition was largely suppressed, with its leaders imprisoned or in exile. The government's ability to maintain order through force and a strong legislative framework allowed it to consolidate its power and continue implementing apartheid policies despite growing international pressure. However, the actions of the 1960s laid the groundwork for future resistance both inside and outside South Africa, as the world became increasingly aware of the injustices.