South Africa 1960-1994 Study Guide

Opposition to Apartheid in South Africa during the 1960s intensified both domestically and internationally, despite severe repression by the apartheid government. Internally, the African National Congress (ANC) and Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) were key players. Following the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, where police opened fire on peaceful PAC protestors, both organisations were banned and forced underground. This ban led to a shift in strategy, with some groups, notably the ANC's armed wing Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), adopting armed resistance. Key figures like Nelson Mandela, initially advocating non-violent resistance, became central to this armed struggle. His capture and the subsequent Rivonia Trial in 1963-64, where he and other leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment, severely crippled the internal resistance for a time. Robert Sobukwe, the PAC leader, was also imprisoned under harsh conditions.

Internationally, the Sharpeville Massacre drew global condemnation, shining a spotlight on the brutality of apartheid. The United Nations (UN) became a focal point for international pressure, condemning apartheid and calling for sanctions. Countries, particularly from the Commonwealth and newly independent African nations, began to isolate South Africa. Sporting boycotts, such as the expulsion of South Africa from the Olympic Games in 1964 and various cricket and rugby tours facing protests, became a prominent form of opposition. Cultural boycotts also gained traction. While economic sanctions were debated, their implementation was often piecemeal and limited due to the economic interests of major Western powers. Despite these efforts, the apartheid regime remained firmly in power throughout the 1960s, using a combination of legislative repression, military force, and propaganda to maintain its grip. The decade ended with internal opposition largely suppressed but international protests gathering momentum.

The 1970s in Northern Ireland were marked by a significant increase in violence and political instability, a period often referred to as 'The Troubles'. This decade saw the escalation of paramilitary activity from groups like the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), alongside a substantial British Army presence. Resistance took many forms, including armed conflict, bombings, and civil disobedience, driven by deeply entrenched sectarian divisions and differing views on Northern Ireland's constitutional status. The IRA, for instance, aimed to achieve a united Ireland through force, while loyalist paramilitaries sought to maintain Northern Ireland's union with Great Britain. In response to this growing resistance, the British government implemented various repressive measures. Internment without trial, introduced in 1971, allowed for the detention of suspected paramilitaries without charge, largely targeting the nationalist community. This policy proved highly controversial, alienating many and leading to increased recruitment for the IRA. Bloody Sunday in January 1972, where British soldiers shot dead 14 unarmed civil rights marchers in Derry, further intensified nationalist grievances and international condemnation. The British government also imposed direct rule from Westminster in 1972, dissolving the Stormont Parliament, seeking to restore order but further highlighting the collapse of local political institutions. Attempts at political resolution, like the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973, which aimed to establish a power-sharing executive, ultimately failed due to a lack of broad political consensus and a widespread loyalist general strike in 1974. The escalation of violence, the application of controversial security policies, and the repeated failures of political initiatives all contributed to a decade of profound turmoil and suffering in Northern Ireland.