Physical chemistry

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Sample objectives

What this unit covers

• Atomic structure: Write electron configurations of atoms and ions up to atomic number 36 using shells and s, p and d subshells.
• Atomic structure: Explain how first and successive ionisation energies provide evidence for shells and subshells.
• Atomic structure: State the relative charge and relative mass of protons, neutrons and electrons.
• Atomic structure: Explain that scientific understanding of atomic structure has developed over time.
• Atomic structure: Determine the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions from mass number, atomic number and charge.
• Atomic structure: Calculate relative atomic mass from isotopic abundance data for mononuclear ions.
• Amount of substance: Define relative molecular mass in relation to carbon-12.
• Amount of substance: Calculate relative molecular or formula mass from a chemical formula and relative atomic masses.
• Amount of substance: Explain the Avogadro constant as the number of particles in one mole.
• Amount of substance: Calculate amounts using mass, Mr and moles.
• Amount of substance: Explain why unit consistency matters in ideal gas calculations.
• Amount of substance: Rearrange the ideal gas equation to calculate pressure, volume, amount, gas constant or temperature where appropriate.
• Amount of substance: Calculate empirical formulae from percentage composition data.
• Amount of substance: Distinguish empirical formula from molecular formula.
• Amount of substance: Calculate percentage yield from actual and theoretical yield.
• Amount of substance: Use balanced equations to identify limiting reagents.
• Amount of substance: Prepare and use standard solutions in quantitative analysis.
• Amount of substance: Required practical: make up a volumetric solution and carry out a simple acid-base titration.
• Bonding: Relate ionic lattice strength to charge and ionic radius.
• Bonding: Explain the formation of ionic lattices.
• Bonding: Explain the effect of lone pairs on bond angles.
• Bonding: Describe covalent bonding as shared pairs of electrons.
• Bonding: Use molecular shape to decide whether bond dipoles cancel.
• Bonding: Use electronegativity differences to explain polar bonds.
• Bonding: Explain boiling point and volatility trends using intermolecular forces.
• Bonding: Describe hydrogen bonding and the conditions needed for it.
• Bonding: Relate metallic bonding strength to melting point and structure.
• Bonding: Explain electrical conductivity in metals.
• Energetics: Interpret reaction profile diagrams.
• Energetics: Distinguish exothermic and endothermic reactions using enthalpy change signs.
• Energetics: Required practical: measure an enthalpy change.
• Energetics: Use q = mcΔT to calculate heat energy transferred.
• Energetics: State Hess's law.
• Energetics: Use Hess's law to calculate reaction enthalpy changes.
• Energetics: Define mean bond enthalpy.
• Energetics: Calculate approximate enthalpy changes from mean bond enthalpies.
• Kinetics: Define activation energy.
• Kinetics: Use collision frequency and energy to explain reaction rate.
• Kinetics: Interpret distribution curves at different temperatures.
• Kinetics: Draw Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curves.
• Kinetics: Explain how temperature affects rate using Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions.
• Kinetics: Explain how pressure affects gas reaction rate.
• Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier's principle and Kc: Use Le Chatelier's principle to predict the effect of pressure changes.
• Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier's principle and Kc: Explain why catalysts do not change the position of equilibrium.
• Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier's principle and Kc: Interpret the magnitude of Kc in terms of equilibrium position.
• Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier's principle and Kc: Calculate Kc from equilibrium concentrations.
• Oxidation, reduction and redox equations: Define oxidation as an increase in oxidation state.
• Oxidation, reduction and redox equations: Identify oxidising and reducing agents from oxidation-state changes.
• Oxidation, reduction and redox equations: Balance atoms and charges in redox equations.
• Oxidation, reduction and redox equations: Use redox equations in reactions involving acids, metals and transition-metal ions.
• Thermodynamics (A-level only): Compare experimental and theoretical lattice enthalpies.
• Thermodynamics (A-level only): Construct Born-Haber cycles for ionic compounds.
• Thermodynamics (A-level only): Explain why feasibility does not guarantee an observable reaction rate.
• Thermodynamics (A-level only): Calculate entropy changes from standard entropy data.
• Rate equations (A-level only): Interpret concentration-time graphs.
• Rate equations (A-level only): Deduce orders of reaction from initial rate data.
• Rate equations (A-level only): Distinguish overall equation from rate-determining step.
• Rate equations (A-level only): Use a proposed mechanism to predict a rate equation.
• Equilibrium constant Kp for homogeneous systems (A-level only): Calculate Kp and determine appropriate units.
• Equilibrium constant Kp for homogeneous systems (A-level only): Interpret Kp values in terms of equilibrium position.
• Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level only): Required practical: measure the EMF of an electrochemical cell.
• Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level only): Calculate cell potentials from standard electrode potentials.
• Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level only): Explain how concentration and conditions affect cell potentials.
• Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level only): Explain limitations of predictions based on standard conditions.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Define Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Identify conjugate acid-base pairs.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Use Kw to calculate hydrogen ion or hydroxide ion concentrations.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Calculate hydrogen ion concentration from pH.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Explain weak-acid behaviour in terms of partial dissociation.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Construct Ka expressions for weak acids.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Sketch and explain pH curves for combinations of weak and strong monoprotic acids and bases.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Perform calculations using acid-base titration data.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Explain qualitatively how acidic buffers resist pH change.
• Acids and bases (A-level only): Explain applications of buffer solutions.