Language, a system for communicating thoughts and feelings, via verbal and non-verbal ways. Revision Notes

Language is fundamentally a system designed to convey information between individuals. It allows people to share their internal experiences, such as thoughts, ideas, and emotions, with others. This system is not limited to spoken words but extends to various forms that facilitate understanding and connection.

• Language enables expression of complex ideas and feelings.
• It is essential for social interaction and cooperation.
• Communication can be intentional or unintentional.

Verbal language involves the use of words, either spoken aloud or written down, to communicate. Spoken language uses sounds and speech patterns, while written language employs symbols and letters to represent those sounds. Both forms follow grammatical rules that structure meaning.

For example, saying "I am happy" verbally or writing it in a letter both convey the same emotional state through verbal language.

• Spoken language uses sounds and speech.
• Written language uses symbols and letters.
• Both require shared rules (grammar) to be understood.

Non-verbal communication includes all the ways people convey messages without words. This can involve facial expressions, hand gestures, posture, eye contact, and tone of voice. These signals often express emotions more directly than words can.

For instance, a smile can indicate friendliness or happiness without any spoken words. Similarly, crossing arms might suggest defensiveness or discomfort.

• Facial expressions convey emotions.
• Gestures can replace or emphasise verbal messages.
• Body posture and eye contact influence communication.

Effective communication often depends on the combination of verbal and non-verbal signals. Non-verbal cues can reinforce, contradict, or complement spoken words, providing a fuller understanding of the message.

For example, saying "I'm fine" with a sad tone or avoiding eye contact may suggest the opposite of the words spoken. Recognising this interplay helps interpret true meaning in conversations.

• Non-verbal cues can support or contradict verbal messages.
• They help convey emotions and attitudes.
• Understanding both forms improves communication accuracy.

In daily life, people use language in various ways to express themselves. A teacher explaining a concept uses verbal language, while a nod of approval from a student is non-verbal. A text message is written verbal language, whereas a thumbs-up emoji combines verbal and non-verbal elements.

These examples show how language adapts to different situations and technologies to maintain effective communication.

• Verbal: conversations, writing, speeches.
• Non-verbal: gestures, facial expressions, posture.
• Mixed forms: emojis, tone of voice, body language.

This initial phase occurs from birth until around 6 months of age. During this time, infants produce sounds that are not yet recognisable as words. These include crying, cooing, and other vocalisations that serve to attract attention or express discomfort or contentment.

Although these sounds do not carry specific meaning, they are important for practising the vocal apparatus and for social interaction. For example, a baby might coo softly when content or make different cries to signal hunger or pain.

• No actual words are produced yet.
• Sounds are mainly reflexive or exploratory.
• Important for social bonding and vocal practice.

Babbling typically begins around 4 to 6 months and continues until about 12 months. In this stage, infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations such as "ba-ba" or "da-da."

Babbling is a crucial step as it shows the infant experimenting with speech sounds and practising the rhythm and intonation of their native language. Although these sounds are not meaningful words, they resemble the structure of language and prepare the child for actual word production.

• Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds like "ma-ma" or "ga-ga".
• No specific meaning attached yet.
• Practices speech muscles and sound patterns.

Around 12 months, children enter the one-word stage, where they begin to use single words to express whole ideas or needs. For example, saying "milk" might mean "I want milk" or "There is milk."

At this stage, the vocabulary is limited but meaningful. Children rely heavily on context, tone, and gestures to convey their intentions. This stage demonstrates the child's growing understanding that words can represent objects, actions, or desires.

• Single words convey broader meanings.
• Vocabulary is small but functional.
• Context and non-verbal cues support communication.

Between 18 and 24 months, children start combining two words to form simple phrases such as "want toy" or "go park."

These combinations show an emerging grasp of syntax and the relationships between words, even though grammar is not yet fully developed. The two-word stage marks a shift from isolated words to basic sentence structure.

• Simple two-word phrases appear.
• Shows early syntax understanding.
• Examples: "more juice", "daddy go".

From about 24 to 30 months, children produce short sentences that resemble telegrams, containing mainly content words without smaller grammatical words. For example, "cat eat fish" instead of "The cat is eating fish."

This stage reflects the child's focus on essential words to communicate meaning efficiently. Function words like "is," "the," or "and" are often omitted, but the message remains clear.

• Short sentences with key content words.
• Omission of less important grammatical words.
• Example: "want ball now".

After 30 months, children's speech becomes more complex and grammatically accurate. They begin to use function words, plurals, tenses, and more sophisticated sentence structures.

This stage shows significant development in language skills, allowing children to express detailed thoughts and feelings. For example, a child might say, "I am playing with my friends at the park."

Language use becomes more flexible and closer to adult speech patterns.

• Longer, grammatically correct sentences.
• Use of function words and varied vocabulary.
• Example: "She is running fast because she is late."